Crossing professional boundaries in medicine: the slippery slope to patient sexual exploitation

Sexual exploitation by their doctor has very destructive effects on patients. There are similarities to incest in the nature of the relationship and patient response. Doctors are powerful authority figures who, in exploiting patients’ trust to serve their own sexual gratification, transgress a position of trust in a similar way, and with similar effects, to a parent abusing a child. Intense shame, guilt, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, suicidal thoughts, increased drug and alcohol use, break-up of relationships and loss of employment have been reported among patients after sexual misconduct by doctors, therapists, and other practitioners. 9,13,14 In addition, these patients often have difficulty trusting the medical profession again, thus compromising their future healthcare.

The medical profession, through its medical boards, attempts to ensure that doctors are competent and will maintain high ethical standards. Societal attitudes toward the professions, including medicine, are becoming increasingly negative. 15 Reports of the sexual abuse of patients reinforce public perception that medicine as a profession is not meeting its obligations and that doctors are more interested in meeting their own needs rather than those of their patients.

Medical practice has been conceptualised as involving a balance between intimacy and power. 16 Doctors often work closely with patients for many years, participating in their lives during stressful and traumatic periods. Highly confidential issues are discussed. Doctors have a responsibility to ensure that the patient’s needs are met where appropriate, without compromising their professional role.

Canaris, an Australian psychiatrist involved with Encompass (an assessment and treatment service for clergy who have violated boundaries “sexually exploited . . . .”), comments on “the potential within each and every one of us to breach boundaries”. 17 This is likely to happen when doctors are under stress themselves, with insufficient emotional support. 19 In addition, a small number of doctors behave in a predatory manner and sexually exploit multiple patients. 3,4 Rarely, mental illness, such as mania or psychosis, results in disinhibited sexual behaviour.

Care of children and the disabled is a large part of medical practice, but there have been few reports of sexual abuse in these situations. However, on epidemiological grounds, it is unlikely that medicine differs from professions such as the Church and teaching and is free of paedophiles. Indeed, a case report of a paedophilic paediatrician in the United States raises the possibility that abuse of these patients may be under-recognised. 19

Poor communication by the doctor can result in complaints of sexual assault in the context of a physical examination. 20 The reason for each component of the physical examination must be clearly understood by the patient.

Usually, but not always, unethical relationships involve male doctors and female patients, suggesting that traditional gender roles contribute to the interpersonal environment in which exploitation takes place. 9 The most vulnerable patients are women who have previously been sexually abused: the “sitting duck” syndrome. 13 A recent newspaper report relates how a sexual relationship between a male doctor and female patient began after she told him about her childhood sexual abuse. 21 A survey of 40 Australian women who had experienced sexual abuse in psychotherapy found that two-thirds had a history of childhood abuse. 9

Dependent and borderline personality disorders are also risk factors. Patients with borderline personality disorders have often been subject to childhood abuse and neglect. They have considerable difficulty with interpersonal relationships and maintaining consistent and appropriate boundaries. Their care can be challenging even for very experienced practitioners. 22

The need to improve doctors’ own psychological health and supports is increasingly recognised. Canaris comments that doctors at risk of breaching boundaries may find themselves with “nowhere to turn”. 17 Measures such as doctor–doctor programs, doctors’ health advisory services and peer support programs can potentially help reduce vulnerability. Improved support systems within training programs and the clinical colleges are important.

As sexual relationships between doctor and patient are often the culmination of a series of boundary crossings, early warning of this process may help doctors manage the risk. A self-assessment questionnaire for practitioners to identify boundary crossings and violations has been developed in the United States23 (Box). Although this questionnaire is primarily directed at psychotherapists, it provides a useful framework for considering the slippery slope between boundary crossings, which may be harmless or even beneficial to the patient, and boundary violations. It would be helpful to have similar questionnaires for Australian doctors, taking into account the diversity of medical practice.

When a doctor is having difficulty managing boundary issues with a particular patient, discussing the problem with colleagues or a peer review group may be helpful. Medical defence associations can give useful advice. Deliberately adopting a more formal and professional approach, without being punitive, can help to reinstate boundaries. Referral of the patient to another doctor, even though the patient might be reluctant, can be in their best interests.

It has been suggested that sexual exploitation by psychotherapists (psychiatrists, psychologists, psychoanalysts and social workers) should be a criminal offence, with penalties including fines and imprisonment. 24 A similar argument could be made with regard to the medical profession. Public pressure for more punitive responses is likely to increase if the profession’s response is seen as inadequate. Besides undertaking investigations and hearings, and deciding on appropriate penalties, the profession must adopt measures to reduce the incidence of this behaviour. These include accessible, supportive complaints procedures, education of the profession as a whole, and improved support for doctors who are struggling.

Patients will sometimes disclose sexual misconduct by another doctor. For example, over 60% of Australian psychiatrists had been informed by a patient of sexual misconduct by a previous therapist (not always doctors); indeed, over 50% stated that at least two patients had described abuse in previous therapeutic relationships. 14 This is a difficult situation if the patient does not wish to complain to a regulatory body. Guidelines of the Australian Medical Association (AMA) state that doctors have an obligation to report suspected unethical or unprofessional conduct by a colleague to the appropriate peer-review body. 25 Sometimes, representatives of such a body will meet with the practitioner and discuss his or her alleged unprofessional behaviour. However, an investigation generally cannot be undertaken without a patient complaint.

Practical guidelines have been developed for the management of “rogue” doctors — those with serious sociopathic behavioural deficiencies. 3,4 Behaviours of concern include dishonesty, intentionally harming a patient, sexual harassment, and substance misuse. These guidelines provide a structured management approach to removing these doctors from the system in which they work, but no studies of their effectiveness have been reported. The problem is, of course, that such doctors may obtain other employment. Medical employers would be wise to check with previous employers to ensure that there is no past history of professional misconduct.

Education about ethics, beginning at medical school and continuing into practice, is essential. 26,27 In addition to imparting ethical standards, it should present tools to evaluate ethical dilemmas, such as arguments for zero tolerance of sexual contact between doctors and patients. 28 There are obvious grey areas that can be discussed. For example, for rural practitioners, virtually everyone they come into contact with is also a patient. There are also issues with past patients — when is a patient no longer a patient?

Canaris has described an independent evaluation and treatment program for Australian clergy who have breached sexual boundaries. 17 The program uses a multidisciplinary team approach and includes individual and group therapy, from both psychodynamic and cognitive perspectives. Clergy who have responded well to treatment may then negotiate a return to restricted ministry. Canaris proposes that a similar program would be helpful for doctors who have breached boundaries. 17 At present, offenders may be treated by a colleague, who is in the awkward position of providing treatment and providing reports to a medical board. Full disclosure within such a relationship is unlikely.