Empowering women improves both productivity and health outcomes
Although the terms “sex” and “gender” are commonly used as synonyms, they refer to two distinct concepts. Sex refers to the biological differences between men and women, whereas gender refers to socially defined roles, behaviours and expectations. Being clear about the distinction between the two terms is important, as the contribution to women’s health of sex and gender are likely to be different, and therefore also our solutions for reducing disparities. Sex differences are increasingly recognised as being important for conditions such as cardiovascular disease,1 for example, and while physiological differences in coronary vasculature can contribute to different presentations and manifestations of disease, gender influences health behaviours, risks, and access to health services.2 We argue that taking gender into account, as well as sex, is critical to improving health outcomes.
The full article is accessible to AMA members and paid subscribers. Login to read more or purchase a subscription now.
Please note: institutional and Research4Life access to the MJA is now provided through Wiley Online Library.
- 1. Peters SA, Huxley RR, Sattar N, Woodward M. Sex differences in the excess risk of cardiovascular diseases associated with type 2 diabetes: potential explanations and clinical implications. Curr Cardiovasc Risk Rep 2015; 9: 1-7.
- 2. Davidson PM, McGrath SJ, Meleis AI, et al. The health of women and girls determines the health and well-being of our modern world: a white paper from the International Council on Women’s Health Issues. Health Care Women Int 2011; 32: 870-886.
- 3. Fredman S, Kuosmanen J, Campbell M. Transformative equality: making the Sustainable Development Goals work for women. Eth Int Aff 2016; 30: 177-187.
- 4. Fairthorne J, Walker R, de Klerk N, Shepherd C. Early mortality from external causes in Aboriginal mothers: a retrospective cohort study. BMC Public Health 2016; 16: 461.
- 5. Shishehgar S, Gholizadeh L, DiGiacomo M, et al. Health and socio-cultural experiences of refugee women: an integrative review. J Immigr Minor Health 2016; doi: 10.1007/s10903-016-0379-1 [Epub ahead of print].
- 6. Tappis H, Freeman J, Glass N, Doocy S. Effectiveness of interventions, programs and strategies for gender-based violence prevention in refugee populations: an integrative review. PLoS Curr 2016; doi: 10.1371/currents.dis.3a465b66f9327676d61eb8120eaa5499.
- 7. Fotso JC, Fogarty L. Progress towards Millennium Development Goals 4 & 5: strengthening human resources for maternal, newborn and child health. BMC Health Serv Res 2015; 15 Suppl 1: S1.
- 8. Hegdahl HK, Fylkesnes KM, Sandøy IF. Sex differences in HIV prevalence persist over time: evidence from 18 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS One 2016; 11: e0148502.
- 9. Thornton RL, Glover CM, Cené CW, et al. Evaluating strategies for reducing health disparities by addressing the social determinants of health. Health Aff (Millwood) 2016; 35: 1416-1423.
- 10. Waage J, Yap C, Bell S, et al. Governing the UN Sustainable Development Goals: interactions, infrastructures, and institutions. Lancet Glob Health 2015; 3: e251-e252.
- 11. DiGiacomo M, Lewis J, Nolan MT, et al. Health transitions in recently widowed older women: a mixed methods study. BMC Health Serv Res 2013; 13: 143.
- 12. Davidson PM, DiGiacomo M, McGrath SJ. The feminization of aging: how will this impact on health outcomes and services? Health Care Women Int 2011; 32: 1031-1045.
- 13. Nedkoff L, Atkins E, Knuiman M, et al. Age-specific gender differences in long-term recurrence and mortality following incident myocardial infarction: a population-based study. Heart Lung Circ 2015; 24: 442-449.
- 14. Tarzia L, Murray E, Humphreys C, et al. I-DECIDE: an online intervention drawing on the psychosocial readiness model for women experiencing domestic violence. Womens Health Issues 2016; 26: 208-216.
- 15. Koziol-McLain J, Vandal AC, Nada-Raja S, et al. A web-based intervention for abused women: the New Zealand isafe randomised controlled trial protocol. BMC Public Health 2015; 15: 56.
- 16. Dobson AJ, Hockey R, Brown WJ, et al. Cohort profile update: Australian longitudinal study on women’s health. Int J Epidemiol 2015; 44: 1547, 1547a-1547f.
No relevant disclosures.